Norwegian is part of the northern branch of the Germanic languages, which also includes Danish, Faroese, Icelandic, and Swedish. In its written form, the Norwegian language has two official standards: Bokmål and Nynorsk. There are a number of Sámi languages, but there are three main languages used by the Sámi population in and close to Norway: Northern, Lule and Southern Sámi.
Diversity of language and expression
The richness of languages in Norway is unique to the Nordic region and represents a national legacy that also encompasses conflict. The two written standards of Norwegian, Bokmål and Nynorsk, are today part of a shared public domain. The Sámi languages, both written and spoken, have ties with the northern regions of Norway and cross the borders with the neighbouring countries Sweden, Finland, and Russia. A culture of linguistic diversity, which also accords status to dialects, provides for the ongoing renewal of language awareness among authors and readers, and this tradition is now undergoing further development in a multicultural Norway.
The literary system
The breadth, quality, and proliferation of Norwegian literature in Norway and internationally cannot be understood without including the literary system that provides the conditions for production, sale, and distribution of literature throughout the country. This system is based on state participation, which in turn stems from circumstances unique to Norway. Norwegian national literature played an important role in nation building after the dissolution of Norway’s union with Denmark in 1814. The establishment and development of Norwegian publishing houses and Norwegian booksellers played a defining role, as did a strong awareness of the importance of the development of the Norwegian language: Nynorsk and Bokmål.
Nynorsk and Bokmål
Nynorsk was established as a written standard of Norwegian in its own right in the 1850s. The new written language was based on a selection of Norwegian dialects, while also having a foundation in the Old Norse language. The man responsible for collecting words and expressions from dialects and for creating a system for this material in the form of new grammar and a separate dictionary was Ivar Aasen (1813–96). Parallel to the development of Nynorsk, the Bokmål standard was formally established, which had its origins in Danish. Knud Knudsen (1812–95), a school teacher, was instrumental in Norwegianising this Danish starting point and can be seen as the father of Bokmål. In Norway, Nynorsk and Bokmål are co-official variants of Norwegian, as these two written languages have been since 1885.
Since that time, the preservation and strengthening of the Norwegian language has been a key argument for public funding for the book sector. Literature is considered to be the most important channel for the renewal and transmission of language. The ideals of public education in the late nineteenth century also played a role in laying the foundation for a nationwide Norwegian library system. Finally, there is cause to mention the democratic concept of equality that endeavoured to bring cultural assets to the entire population. Clear political resolutions ensured the distribution of books that could be purchased for the same price all around the country. Fixed book prices became a cornerstone of both the distribution of literature and language policy.
Language is a topic well-suited for inspiring discussion, awakening emotions and fascination. The orthography of the Norwegian language encompasses a wealth of optional forms, in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. This says something about how individual linguistic choices and stylistic features are cultivated as an ideal, which can be a challenge for translators, but produces abundant forms of creative expression.
Sámi languages
There are ten different Sámi languages in Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia, and the differences between them can be great. For example, the linguistic distance between Northern and Southern Sámi is about the same as that between Norwegian and Icelandic, but those with neighbouring languages will more or less understand each other. These linguistic distinctions also reflect other cultural variations, such as the different types of joik (the traditional form of Sámi music, one of the oldest continuous musical forms in Europe), and dress which can be seen in the traditional Sámi patterns. The language boundaries stretch from east to west across Norway and Sweden, and do not follow national borders. Because of the long-term assimilation policies followed by state authorities, less than half of the Sámi speak their own language. As a result, Sámi readers are also dependent on Sámi literature being translated, either to the national language or to an international one.
In Norway and Sweden there are three main Sámi languages: Northern, Lule and Southern Sámi, with the sub-groups Pite and Ume Sámi. Skolt Sámi (an eastern Sámi language) was previously spoken in Norway, but now most of those speaking Skolt Sámi live in Finland, where Northern and Inari Sámi are also spoken. In Russia, Kildin Sámi is still partially used, while Ter and Akkala Sámi have virtually become extinct. Of all these groups, Northern Sami is undeniably the largest. It is estimated that approximately three quarters of the Sámi-speaking population speak Northern Sámi, which also accounts for about the same proportion of all academic and literary publications.
Politically, however, there are many who choose to define Sámi as one language with several different dialects, just as one talks about a common Sámi culture and history. It depends on what is viewed as most important: the factors unifying them, or those distinguishing them from each other.
A rich language
Sámi language is very rich when it comes to nature, animals, fishing, and hunting. There are several hundred different terms for snow and ice conditions, and even more for reindeer, based on their appearance, age, gender, and the colour of the animal’s coat. In ancient times the Sámi also used many metaphorical names for predators such as wolves, bears, and wolverines, as they were perceived to be wise animals that could understand direct speech, but not metaphors. So it was important not to use the term wolf – because otherwise the wolf would know it was being hunted – and instead use a circumlocution of the name. Sámi language is also rich in regard to topographical expressions and family relations.
Sámi verbs are more important than nouns. They also often contain an aesthetic dimension, so where in Norwegian and English an adjective would be necessary to describe the aesthetic content of a movement, in Sámi this can be expressed through the verb itself.
Agglutinative languages
The Sámi languages are derivative languages, where a word from the same stem can create many different new words and concepts. This is a strength when it comes to adjusting a traditional language to new social conditions. Because of external influences, new forms of living and social interaction, Sámi languages are experiencing rapid change, with traditional forms of expression losing out to direct translations from Norwegian and English. Sentence structure and the aesthetic use of verbs are changing rapidly. Sámi language is an invaluable source for understanding the traditional Sámi worldview. This perspective represents a growing subject area now that this indigenous culture's own forms of understanding have come more into the light, and are now being recognised.
Text about Sámi languages in Norway by Harald Gaski, translated by Matt Bagguley.